The politics of globalization of Brazil Essay Example for Free

The politics of globalization of Brazil Essay The world, which started in the form of tribes exchanging barters as trade, entered a modern scenario, and barter soon turned into exchange of gold and then eventually currency. With the period of time, the humble trade transformed into international deals, and which eventually started the age of globalization. The era of globalization brought the world very close, and the trade that seemed much distanced because of the detachment of continents, started commencing on daily basis, and every place in the world has now become reachable in hours. â€Å"Brazil†, one of the highlight of Latin America, has it share of chaos and confusion, but eventually with the course of time, it has dwindled itself in the colors of globalization. Brazil has had a very troublesome past, and after the colonial monarchy, the army crept in leading to numerous coups, which resulted in mass destructions and stumping of the economy. It has been only three decades since there has been proper regime that has been ruling the country, and has been providing a platform for business and trade to prosper in the nation. Brazil with due course of time has joined the trillion dollar economy, and is shaping up to become of the leading economies of the world. With its due course of time, Brazil silently has crept in the list of large economies, and currently it stands as the eight largest economy of the world. Brazil since the early 90’s started accelerating its prospects by splurging into the world economy and opening its huge market to the world. Brazil’s sudden significance to the world market made it entry into the G-20 and also into organizations like ‘Mercosur’ Globalization is just not one huge international trade fair anymore, and it has a lot of politics involved. The level of politics in globalization has different facets and different indicators, and each country with the amount of its strengths and weakness are weighed into the politics of globalization. The facets of politics of globalizations is best explained, when it is revealed that it is nothing much than anger of people in the underdeveloped countries of the world, of what they are seeing as the unfair distribution of wealth, education and resources and the increase in the gaps of the people falling into categories of haves and have-nots (Gail S. Schoettler, P. 1). The politics of globalization of any nation can be best understood on the basis of import prohibitions imposed by that particular nation. In the case of Brazil, it has a serious issue with automobile being imported, as it wants to protect its huge automobile market, which is very evident from the fact that in the year 2005 Brazil manufactured more than 1. 65 million cars only for its domestic consumption (Elisangela Cordeiro). Brazil doesn’t want cars to be imported in the country as it can seriously damage its very own market, posing a threat to its own economy, as automobile is one of the biggest manufacturing sectors in the country of Brazil, and if the ban is lifted for importing automobiles from other nations, then it can have several negative impacts on the Brazilian economy as well as Brazilian labor force. On the other hand Brazil maintains kind of a monopoly, when it comes to its exports, as Brazil is supposed to be the leading exporter of coffee, sugar, beef and orange juice. Brazil’s best example of playing the politics of globalization game, is by understanding the fact, that when the whole world, is trying to impose bans on the production giant China over the unsafe toys filled with lead content, which even includes the World Trade Organization, Brazil has no issue with the unsafe toy and Brazil’s ambassador to China has even made comments openly like â€Å" It’s necessary to avoid simplistic solutions, like championing protectionism, which is an ineffective tool in a globalize world† (Luis Augusto de Castro Neves, Reuters). The reason for this kind of attitude towards China is because Brazil has a huge market in the form of China for its iron ore and its soybeans production. This double standard of not only Brazil but almost all nations in the world of imposing prohibitions for imports, but want free trade scenarios for exports, show the depth of politics of globalization. Brazil on a global scene is moving towards huge figures in terms of trade, and it was estimated in the year 2005 that within a span of four years, Brazil had managed to double its exports from US$58 billion in 2001 to a whopping US$118 billion and within the same estimated period, Brazil has managed to curb its import levies and has managed to control imports from the rest of the world, in their booming economy, and have been able to manage import increase by only 30%, from US$56 billion to US$74 billion. Brazil has been taking the wrath of the United States of America in terms of its trade policies and import prohibitions, but again the politics of globalization can be seen from the fact that how much ever the tiff between these two countries over free trade, America tops the list in both segments of trade, i. e. import as well as export from Brazil. The country supposedly is very actively involved in its productions and manufacturing strengths, especially of automobiles, aircrafts, textiles and footwear. Basically the level of globalization is very different of that of an idealist, and now each country is only trying to protect its interests and actually has no regards for the impact of it callous attitude towards other countries. Brazil fundamentally thriving on its agricultural economy has to suffer because of the conflicts over farm subsidies and agricultural tariffs from the United States of America and other European countries. Brazil considers itself to be one of the developing countries and tries to connect to other developing nations on the basis of monopoly of the developed nations, be it on the basis of agricultural tariffs or import prohibitions. Brazil how much ever shows its dissent for the policies of the west, it tries to rally itself for trade to all the developed nation, and there is a huge hypocrisy, when it comes to trade, as both Brazil and the developed countries, how much ever disagree with each other’s policies, but both will be on one list of top imports and exports. Brazil though being part of the G-20 and Mercosur, was never actively involved, but with periodic trading coordination, Brazil has started taking active part in these institutions as of now, and it was seen that brazil has been participating in injecting a fresh lease and leading the confront from Mercosur on the lines of boosting trade, creating jobs and reducing poverty in Latin America. Brazil with all its highs and lows, is making a special place in this globalize world, though how much ever unpredictable is the entire trading scenario, Brazil is set to carve a niche in midst of all the politics, that the world has to offer in international trade. Work Cited: 1) Gail S. Schoettler, â€Å"Politics of Globalization†, November 2002, University of Colorado at Institute for International Business and Global Executive Forum Center for International Business Education Research, cudenver. edu/International/ /Documents/Politics_of_globalization. pdf 2) Elisangela Cordeiro, â€Å"Despite Crisis, Brazils Auto Industry Should Grow 5% This Year†, Thursday, 30 June 2005, http://www. brazzilmag. com/content/view/3004/54/ 3) â€Å"Brazil ambassador opposes quotas on China imports†, April 19th 2005, Reuters, http://asia. news. yahoo. com/070418/3/30itr. html 4) â€Å"Trade Policies†, U. S library of congress, http://countrystudies. us/brazil/80. htm

Anaesthetic care

Anaesthetic care In the following text I the author will provide an account of the anaesthetic care given to a paediatric patient in my care during a surgical procedure to repair her cleft palate. I will discuss the rationale behind the chosen anaesthetic technique and will analyse why the method was identified as the most suitable backing the findings up with related literature. The text will explore the care given to the patient and the preparation needed to ensure a safe procedure starting from the pre-assessment visit right to the anaesthetic room looking at the roles of some of the multi disciplinary team members involved in the childs care. An episode of care for any individual patient is a complex series of interactions that make up the process of care. The recipient of this anaesthetic care is an 8-month-old female, who, as patient confidentiality forbids the use of her real name (NMC 2002a) shall be known as Eve. Eve was born at 41 weeks gestation, during a routine prenatal scan at 23 weeks gestation an abnormality of her facial structure was noted, her parents were informed of this and counselling and advice was offered. The extent of the abnormality was not seen until Eve was born. She was born with a unilateral cleft lip and palate, which is were there is a single cleft of the lip, and the hard, and soft palate are also divided (Shprintzen and Bardach 1995) but was otherwise fit and well. In accordance to Watson et al 2001 clefts of the lip and palate may be isolated deformities or may be a part of a syndrome. Eve has not been diagnosed with a syndrome there for this is an isolated deformity. Watson (2001) suggests that non-syndromic clefts are multi-factorial in origin and could occur due to gene involvement, various environmental factors or embryo development in relation the mothers life choices during pregnancy i.e. excessive alcohol, drug abuse etc. Eve had previously undergone the first stage of the surgery, which was a repair to her cleft lip. This is done between the ages of two and four months within our trust. This is mainly due to cosmetic reasons but also to encourage oral feeding and sucking and to encourage the tissues to grow at the same rate as the childs facial structure (Watson Et al, 2001). Eve was admitted to hospital the day prior to her surgery. Eves mother had requested this rather than attending pre-admission clinic as she had problems with transportation to the hospital. This highlights good communication (Department of Health, 2003) between the nursing staff and Eves mother, which is of benefit to both the child and the familys needs (Clayton, 2000). The Department of Health (1989) states that the welfare of the child is paramount, however Smith and Daughtrey (2000) believe that it is also important to ensure that parental needs are also met. Wong (1999), states that good family centred care is considerate of all family members needs and not only the needs of the child. The initial assessment of Eve involved her primary nurse, Eve and her mother Joanne. The cleft palate pathway was used as assessment aid and highlighted any needs that Eve and her family had. The anaesthetist (Dr A) then examined Eve and was able to explain the procedure to Eves mother. This meeting with Dr A provided Eves mother with both verbal and written information therefore equipping the family with knowledge and support (Summerton, 1998). During Dr As visit she was able to assess Eves physical and mental condition ensuring that it would be safe to administer a general anaesthetic. During this assessment Dr A was able to request that routine blood samples were taken including cross match in case Eve should need a blood transfusion due to high blood loss during the procedure. She was able to read the operation notes from Eves previous visit making notes of the ET tube size used, the analgesia given, there amounts and if they had the given effects on Eves pain relief and do an assessment of Eves airway. Dr A was aware that Eve would have a difficult airway due to her cleft palate and the fact that her mother reports of her snoring whilst asleep, however she is also aware that assessment of this can be difficult due to Eve being uncooperative or asleep and that most tests used in adult practice including the mallampati scoring system are not validated for use in the paediatric population and are not really useful in the y ounger child (Sumner and Hatch, 1999). She was able to discuss the proposed anaesthetic and pain relief techniques and pre warn eves mother about the monitoring that she may see being used on eve in both the anaesthetic and recovery rooms. Dr A also discussed the use of premeditation such as madazalam with Joanne, it was decided that Eve would not have this as rendering her semi or fully unconscious with a respiratory depressant drug can become hazardous due to Eves cleft palate as her tongue may fall backwards and obstruct her already compromised airway (Sasada, M and Smith, S.2003). All information obtained during the pre assessment by Dr A should and was relayed to the operation department practioner (ODP) who was working alongside her during the case, ensuring that all equipment needed was readily available as and when needed. As Morton (1997) states the motto â€Å"Be Prepared† is a very important principle in anaesthesia. If things were to go wrong during the anaesthesia, intervention must be immediate to avoid harm to the patient; therefore preparation and the checking of equipment and drugs are vital. At the start of each case careful attention to detail is required when setting up the work area. The anaesthetic machine both in the anaesthetic room and in side theatre must be checked in accordance with The Association of Anaesthetists guidelines (Appendix 1) and the manufactures guidelines, and all equipment required must be gathered. There seems to be no set guidelines stating the exact equipment needed so the anaesthetist and the ODP must work together and decide for themselves what they need. â€Å"The success of a paediatric procedure depends not only on the skill and knowledge of the anaesthetist, but also on the possession and utilisation of the proper equipment† (Bell.1991.pg81) Bell (1991) offers the Pre-Anaesthesia Checklist: SCOMLADI that may help towards the selection of equipment: SCOMLADI is a mnemonic for Suction Circuit Oxygen Monitors Laryngoscope handle and blades Airway oral, nasal, ETT, +/- LMA Drugs: Intravenous drips (Bell, 1991.) In Eves case the pieces of equipment that were made available were: Suction, this can be a vital piece of equipment during anaesthesia. This is due to the fact that it can remove gubbings that may cause airway obstruction quickly ensuring the safety of the unconscious patient, although great care must be taken when using suction on an oral wound to ensure no further damage or trauma to the repaired area (Stoddart and Lauder, 2004) Circuit, the Jackson Rees modification of the Ayres t-piece is the main choice as it was designing for paediatric use and it is said to decrease the resistance to breathing by eliminating valves and decreases the amount of dead space in the circuit. Oxygen, this is readily available on the anaesthetic machine. The oxygen is delivered to the machine via a pipeline from the hospital stores. There must also be a full cylinder on the machine for use in case of a malfunction of the pipeline supply. This must be checked during the machine check. Monitors and monitoring aids. Some of the important aids are: Pulse oximeter, this gives a continuous reading of the oxygen saturation in the blood via a fingertip sensor. Although extremely reliable the probes may not pick up a good trace if the patient is cold of has a poor peripheral perfusion. ECG, This provides us with the information of the heart rate and rhythm. This is a valuable aid in detecting bradycardia and arrhythmias in paediatric patients. Blood pressure (bp), the most common way to measure Bp is by using a cuff this is known as non-invasive. Parameters are set on the monitoring console to enable the cuff to inflate and record the patients blood pressure at regular intervals. Arterial Bp can be measured via a cannula placed in an artery, which attaches to a transducer, this is known as invasive monitoring and can give continuous readings. In Eves case a cuff was used in accordance to Dr As wishes. Capnography This is attached to the breathing circuit and analyses the gas mixture. The monitor displays the concentration of oxygen, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide and volatile agents. This information is useful for assessing the adequacy in ventilation and the depth of anaesthesia. The presence of carbon dioxide on the reading confirms that the ET tube is in the right place (Morton, 1997). Temperature Infants lose heat very quickly and there ability to maintain their own temperature is blocked by the anaesthetic (Kumar, 1998). A naso/oesophageal probe is placed in Eves nostril instead of her mouth, as that is where the surgery is taking place. There is other methods of monitoring available such as blood gases, central venous pressure, neuro muscular transmission etc but in Eves case these would only be used if Dr A requested them. Laryngoscope and blade, the different choices of blades are due to the variation in the anatomy found in small infants and children, this is due to the fact that a childs larynx lies higher and more interiorly in the neck and there epiglottis is longer and thinner than adults (Watson, 2001). The use of different size and shape blades is down to the anaesthetists personal choice Dr A prefers to use a lateral approach with a straight blade such as a Magill (Morton.1997). Dr A also likes to have a piece of rolled up gauze filling the cleft to ensure that the blade does not get caught in the deep cleft. The difficult intubations trolley is also essential this is because there is a large selection of different blades, handles, bougies and airways such as cut/uncut endotracheal tubes, guidell airways, laryngeal masks and face masks which are all available on hand. Airways, A selection of pre-formed south facing, uncut and reinforced endotracheal tubes. The size of which can be calculated by using a formula (age / 4 + 4.5 = estimated tube size) or by the childs weight (Morton, 1997). Eve should take a 4.0mm tube but it was noted on her last anaesthetic sheet that a 3.5mm tube was used with a gauze pack insitu due to her different anatomy. Drugs, There are many different types of anaesthetic drugs available such as Volatile induction agents (Gas), Intravenous induction agents, muscle relaxants, reversal agents, anti emetics, local anaesthesia and analgesics. All of which have the own pros and cons for using them. Dr A has chosen to use the volatile agent Sevoflurane in order to initially anaesthetise Eve this is due to the fact that Eves Venous access is poor due to her being a â€Å"podgy† baby. Sevoflurane is the least pungent and irritant of the volatiles and rivals many of the other inhalation induction agents for children. Eve was induced with oxygen, nitrous oxide and 8% sevoflurane, her airway was difficult to maintain due to her tongue being large in relation to her oral cavity which is normal in infants (Wong, 1999) therefore a size 1 guedel airway was used in order to keep the tongue from causing an obstruction. Anaesthesia was maintained with oxygen, nitrous oxide and isoflurane another of the volatil e agents also used within paediatrics with the feeling that this is mainly due to the low cost. Eve also had an infusion of the opioid remi-fentinal. Intra-Venous (IV), IV access was gained when an adequate depth of anaesthesia was reached and endoteacheal intubation was achieved. In total four IV lines were inserted, one to administer IV drugs such as anti emetics, anti biotics and IV pain relief etc. another for the IV infusion of Remi fentinal pain relief. Another for the maintenance fluids and the last on as a spare of to use if blood products are needed. Fluid therapy is important in both adults and children due to the fact that they have been nil by mouth for many hours before there procedure in accordance to hospital guidelines. IV fluids are given as maintenance to preserve hydration, to compensate fluid/electrolyte defects as a result of fasting and also to replace ongoing loss due to evaporation and surgical bleeding (Wong, 1999). As well as the preparation of the anaesthetic room the ODP must also ensure that all equipment needed inside theatre and during the procedure is available such as an operating table that is in good working order, a cleft palate mattress to ensure the correct positioning of Eve, a warming blanket to ensure temperature maintenance and a jelly mat to protect from pressure area sores (Kumar, 1998). It is also the ODPs responsibility along with Dr A to ensure that Eve is transferred in to theatre and on the to operating table safely, that all monitoring equipment is transferred to the inside machines and that all IV therapy equipment is connected before the surgeon preps and drapes the patient as this helps towards maintaining the sterile field around the patient. Throughout the surgery it is seen as best practice for the ODP to remain within close proximity to the patient and anaesthetist in case there is a problem (Kumar, 1998), one such problem noted in Eves case was that when the surgeon inserted the gag needed to keep Eves mouth open he unintentionally moved the position of the ET tube causing a drop in her O2 saturations. Dr A listened to Eves chest with a stethoscope whilst hand ventilating her, this enable her to reposition the ET tube back in to the correct position. Once back in the right place more tape was applied, and the tube was fastened in more securely. If Dr A was unable to just reposition the tube she would have had to remove the tube and reintubate Eve, this means that she would have needed a new Et tube the laryngoscope and blade, maybe a face mask in order to pre oxygenate before re intubation. This is the main reason why all intubation equipment used in the anaesthetic room must follow with the patient into theatre. Whilst in theatre a mechanical ventilator is use in order to ventilate Eve. The Newfield 200 is the vent used within this trust it works by intermittently occluding the expiratory limb of the t-piece and is able to compensate for any leaks around the tube. The ventilator can be adjusted in accordance to Dr As request meeting Eves needs by changing the pressures and times needed. Ventilation was once carried out purely by squeezing the bag by hand; leaving the anaesthetist with just one hand to do other important things such as administer medication or record information, meaning that the Newfield 200 is the preferred method of ventilation in recent times (Sumner and Hatch, 1999). Following the procedure Dr A stopped the infusion of Remi Fentinal and turned off the volatile gas this was to help with the waking up procedure and the safe extubation of Eve. Dr A also ensured that the pack inserted at the beginning was removed safely without causing trauma. Extubation should take place when the patient is fully conscious with there protective reflexes fully intact (Sumner and Hatch, 1999), this is even more important in Eves case due to the nature of her surgery as there could be excessive bleeding or oedema due to the trauma of the oral surgery causing more obstruction to her airway. Although suction should be available during extubation it is noted that large suction catheters such as a yanker should not be used and suction kept to a minimum this is to lower the risk of airway obstruction caused by trauma or by disruption of the surgical repair site. Eves was extubated safely and was transferred to the recovery room with out the need of ICU or HDU intervention. There she was given o2 and monitored by trained recovery staff until they were satisfied that she was able to maintain her own airway and o2 saturations, there was no or minimal blood loss from the wound site and she was pain free. Dr A had prescribed Eve with analgesics to be given back on the ward if needed, this was to ensure that she had a pain free recovery preventing her from getting upset and crying which can encourage the healing process of the wound and maintaining her patient airway. The process of Eves anaesthetic ran a smooth cause. She remained safe throughout the procedure. Great care and planning by both Dr A and the ODP ensured that all events that may have occurred were well prepared for.

Pay And Reward Management In Practice Management Essay

Pay And Reward Management In Practice Management Essay Introduction Before undertaking a critical analysis of collective and individual pay systems and how these systems have been affected by key socio- economic changes in Britain over the past thirty years, it is important to first define the meaning of pay, reward/ reward management, collectivism and individualism. From here the author will consider the key socio-economic factors that have influenced the change in practice and look at the development of reward management within the context of personal development. Pay, Reward, Collectivism and Individualism Pay is used to denote the wages, salaries or fees paid by employers in return for the provision of labour. (Hollinshead, Nicholls and Tailby, 1999, p. 332) The concept of reward has developed over the last twenty five years and has evolved from the concept of basic pay. Reward management involves the analysis and effective control of employee remuneration and covers salary and all benefits. It assesses the nature and extent of rewards and the way they are delivered as well as considering their effect on both the organisation and staff. (Cornwell website, 2007) Reward management therefore is a strategic pay control system, which is central both to the organisation and to the management of Human Resources within that organisation. The term Reward Management was coined by Armstrong and Murliss in 1988 and they and other scholars support the view that: Reward management is not just about money. It is also concerned with those non financial rewards which provide intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. ( Armstrong and Murliss, 1988, p.12) Collectivism or Collective Bargaining is the process of negotiation between unions and employers regarding the  terms and conditions of employment  of employees, and about the rights and responsibilities of trade unions. It is a process of rule making, leading to joint regulation. (Eurofound website, 2007). Collective Bargaining is fundamentally a representative process, in which Trade Unions, who represent the employee, negotiate with key organisational personnel i.e. managers, who represent the organisation, in order to reach agreement on the terms and conditions of employment. According to the WERS Report 2004 Inside the Workplace, collective bargaining is most prevalent in large organisations. The term Individualist, Performance Related Pay or Contingent Pay is the standard term used to describe schemes for providing financial rewards which are related to individual performance, competence, contribution or skill. (Armstrong and Stephens, 2005, p.231) Socio Economic Considerations Before delving into the detail of collectivism and individualism, it is important to look at the socio-economic changes that have taken place over the last thirty years. The rise of Thatcherism and the focus on the personal society and the concept of market forces have played a significant part in the changes to pay and reward within the workplace. The Thatcherist doctrine of the 1980s was heavily focussed on curbing the power of the Trade Unions. This she successfully achieved, but at some cost to certain elements of society. Although, still significant players, trade unions are not now as influential as they once were. For example, According to the findings of the WERS Report 2004 Inside the Workplace, the decrease in the number of Trade Union representatives (particularly within non public sector and small work places) between 1988 and 2004, has lead to a decline in collective power. Additionally, the report noted that pay issues were far less likely to be discussed in workplace consultative committees, if a Trade Representative was not present. Again, this demonstrates a move towards a new pay orthodoxy. Margaret Thatcher viewed market forces as a means to promote healthy businesses and expose the weaker ones, seeking to create an entrepreneurial society, with a focus on individual success and performance. This has been the prevalent idea since the mid 1980s and has influenced workers expectations of reward. (BCC website, 2004) The following extract from the Guardian, gives a helpful summary of the economic changes brought about under Thatcher:- The Conservative economic revolution of the 1980s casts a long shadow. It broke the power of organised labour, deregulated the economy and opened it up to global market forces. Geoffrey Howes 1981 austerity budget of public spending cuts and tax increases pitched Britain into mass unemployment and helped destroy the last vestiges of the post war welfare consensus. In 1978 there were 7.1 million employed in manufacturing, by 2008 that had fallen to 3 million. There has been no significant private investment in the de-industrialised regions. They have still not recovered their social fabric or productive economies and are now sustained by government spending. (The Guardian website, February 2010) There are four points to highlight from this quotation:- The rise of individual entrepreneurialism The reduction in the power of the Unions The break-up of large organisations, both manufacturing and other industries (coal.) In such organisations collective pay settlements were the norm, if those people are now employed at all now, it is likely they are in smaller businesses, which tend not have collective bargaining. The change from mainly an industrial, manufacturing economy to one where the service industry dominates. Over the last thirty years, the standard of living in this country has increased significantly for middle and working class workers but as a consequence, contemporary workers have far higher expectations, with regards to pay and reward and want their efforts to be individually recognised. High performance workers demand to be recognised and rewarded and thus both social and economic pressures currently exist to support individualist pay systems. The Development of Reward Management Pay management systems in Britain have changed considerably over the last thirty years and many of these changes have occurred as a result of important external and internal influences on organisations. The author has chosen to focus on the work of Armstrong (1988) to carry out this analysis, as he is a renowned scholar in the field of pay and reward in the U.K. Old Pay Systems The Early 1980s According to Armstrong and Murliss (1998), these were:- Pay based on the national going rate negotiated centrally with the main Trade Unions White collar and managerial fine pay structures, created to assist promotion increases that did not fall within the norms of income policy, were often open to abuse and resulted out of decaying job evaluation initiatives Limited Performance Related Pay or incentive schemes for office, technical, professional or managerial staff Incremental increases on fixed service-related pay were the norm Senior management Tax- effective benefits The late Enterpreneurial 1980s According to Armstrong and Murliss (1998), the entrepreneurial 1980s witnessed dramatic changes to pay systems. During this period pays role changed from being viewed as a back office function to a key management mechanism for change during the formation of the Enterprise Culture. Pay systems became dominated by performance related pay and incentive schemes. Armstrong and Murliss (1998) argue that during this period reward managements philosophy developed important features which demonstrated many similarities to Human Resource Management philosophy, including:- Treating employees as organisational assets Earning the commitment of these employees to the organisations core values and objectives Allowing staff members to achieve their full potential and to contribute fully to organisational goal achievement The Post Entrepreneurial 1990s Many of the simplistic pay models implemented in the late 1980s failed to achieve their objectives (Armstrong and Murliss, 1998) New Pay Systems The 1990s saw the adoption of a more strategically focused pay systems, which are still operational in contemporary private and public sector organisations. Armstrong and Murliss (1998) noted that the main developments to be incorporated into new pay systems in the 1990s included:- People-based pay, with emphasis on role adaptability and a move towards generic roles and job families, which focus on continual development and competence The introduction of second/ third generation performance- related pay, which focuses on improving performance rather than merely rating it Determining the value of employee inputs and outputs in Performance management i.e. development and motivation Recognising the employees as an organisational stakeholder, who is included in processes which affect their parts of the employment relationship for example pay According to the findings CIPD Survey 2004 of Performance Management, (cited in Armstrong and Stephens, 2005), 56% of the 566 respondents had some type of Performance related Pay. Armstrong and Stephens (2005) argue that many people view Performance Related Pay as a key people motivator, however they argue that non financial rewards i.e. the work undertaken and the working environment form an important part of the whole reward package. However, according to the findings of The e-research 2004 Survey of Performance Related Pay (cited in Armstrong and Stephens, 2005) the main factors for using Performance Related Pay are:- To acknowledge and reward superior performance To appeal to and maintain excellent personnel To enhance organisational performance To concentrate efforts on strategic values and results The Decline of Collectivism According to the WERS Report 2004 and Edwards (2003) the declining influence of the trade unions led to the decline of collectivism, which the WERS Report 2004 noted occurred between 1988-2004, particularly in non public sector and private organisations. The WERS Report 2004 noted that By far the most common pay determination in 2004 was unilateral pay setting by management. (WERS Report, 2004, p.19) i.e.individualism. Collective Bargaining in the Public Sector According to the WERS Report 2004, despite the decline of collective bargaining, it is still used as a means to set pay in larger organisations for example, in public sector organisations, for example, in the public administration and Utilities Industries. Collective Bargaining in the Private Sector According to the WERS Report 2004, Collective Bargaining was virtually non- existent in private sector organisations, for example, the Hotel and Restaurant Industry. In addition, the report noted that collective bargaining has not been replaced by any other single pay determination method, however mixed methods were less used and varying methods of single pay determination were used across the workplace. (WERS Report, 2004) Evidence of the Decline of Collectivism in the U.K. The decline in the use of Collective Bargaining in the U.K., as a pay determination method, over the last thirty years, is clearly illustrated in Table 1, Appendix 1. The Rise of Individualism or Performance Related Pay Some of the key reasons for the rise of individualism in pay systems in the U.K. can be summarised as follows:- The Terms and conditions of staff are increasingly important Aspiration and expectation increasingly staff want to be rewarded for doing a good job As mentioned above the socio-economic factors decline of the trade unions Increased competitive pressures Increasingly market forces constraining employers discretion Driving change (in pay and reward) is the need to strengthen the link to business performance , cost control, support for organisational change and recruitment and retention pressures ( Wright, 2007) As we have moved away from Collectivism, the last thirty years has been dominated by change and experimentation. Basic pay, which applies to the collective is supplemented and enhanced by pay systems that seek to differentiate between individuals in some way. Inconsistencies in Individualism/ Performance Related Pay From the research undertaken, it is clear that contemporary pay systems, some of the features of which are noted in brief on page 7, are determined through collective bargaining or Individualism/ Performance Related Pay, the latter of which has given rise to organisation- based pay setting, which has led to inequalities in pay in the U.K. since 1980. (Edwards, 2003) Individualism/ Performance Related Pay does not apply across the board to all categories of staff. Of particular note is the disparity in packages between managers and workers, for example, The WERS Report 2004 recorded that 45% of managers had company cars, while only 15% of workers had company cars and 38% of managers had private health care, while only 16% of workers had private health care. Performance related pay matrices, as illustrated in Appendix 2, are often used to determine pay increases in relation to performance and pay range position ( Armstrong and Stephens, 2005) Managers need to apply these systems both equally and fairly and therefore, there will need to be some form of mediation with all senior managers to ensure o harmonisation and the implementation of quotas, as not everybody can be rated, as excellent, as it would cost the organisation too much money. Decline in Popularity of Individualism/ Performance Related Pay Performance Related Pay became popular in the late 1980s, as noted earlier on pages 5-7, however, numerous reasons have lead to a decline in its popularity , for example:- Performance Related Pay has become surrounded by complaints about inconsistencies, as noted above, and (therefore) bias Managers who carry out appraisals and administer related monitoring processes often lack the necessary training Performance Related Pay assumes that performance is totally in the hands of the individual, however performance is affected by the organisation/ environment they work in The qualifying criteria for Performance Related Pay demanding and difficult to achieve ( Armstrong and Stephens, 2005) Labour Research, September 2000, reported some significant failings of Performance Related Pay in the public sector, by citing IRS Pay and Benefits Bulletin Survey, which found for example, that 75% of public PRP schemes were too insignificant to motivate staff and that 29% of public sector organisations felt PRP was too costly. According to Wright (2007), the Approach has moved on from simply collectivism and individualism to refining thoughts about individualism, taking into account staff engagement, trust and commitment. There is a need to develop management when looking at the design of reward systems. Wright (2007) cites Milsome (2005), who noted from the Reward Management Symposium (2005) that reward practices are rarely based on evidence of what produces good organisational outcomes and what does not. (Wright, 2007, p.159) Pay and Reward Today According to the CIPD (2010) Today the notion of linking pay to a wider definition of employee contribution is gaining ground. This emphasises not only performance in the sense of output (the end result that is achieved) but also the input (what the employee has contributed in a more holistic sense. (CIPD Website, 2010) It could be said that these developments demonstrate a more rounded and fairer approach to measuring individual performance. The CIPD (2010) refer to a members poll, carried out in March 2009 to gauge the effects of the economic crisis on performance management. It is significant to note 92% of the respondents believed there had been an increased level of performance management in general, 88% of the respondents felt that it was necessary to re-evaluate performance measures to replicate the more demanding work environment. With reference to rewarding performance, 63% of respondents felt that it was harder to reward good performance in the current climate and 90% of respondents felt that reward performance should include the use of increased levels of non-financial incentives. (CIPD, 2010) The results from the CIPD members poll clearly demonstrates the continued importance of performance management but it does also highlight that the current economic crisis has and is likely to continue to affect Performance Related Pay. Conclusion It is true that collectivism has declined and individualism has increased but it is not as simple as one approach replacing the other. Collectivism really started to decline in the Thatcher years with the destruction of the trade unions power and the support for individual endeavour in an attempt to improve the UKs economic performance. Thatcher was a great believer in meritocracy and open competition. This lead to the rise of the importance of the individual. Over the years we have seen this develop from being just about Pay to encompassing the wider concept of Reward (e.g. longer holidays, flexible hours, private health, etc). In the early Eighties this type of Reward was the preserve of Managers, but is now applied at many different levels. This has been strengthened in recent years as a result of two key factors: (i) two recessions within the space of 20 years where companies have struggled to find ways to retain and reward skilled employees other than the traditional financial remuneration, (ii) the changing face of the UK industry from manufacturing to services. However, Collectivism still has its place in larger public organisations and some private ones, particularly where it is very difficult to differentiate between the performance of individuals doing exactly the same lightly skilled jobs, and where the going rate for the job is still a valid concept. Although Individualism does dominate, it has itself developed again in the last 15 years where it has moved from pure Performance Related Pay to systems which are more objective in their assessment and also endeavoured to focus on staff improvement and development. Bibliography:- Armstrong, M., and Murliss, H., (1998.4th ed.) Reward Management : A Handbook of Remuneration Strategy and Practice, Kogan Page, pp.1-57 Armstrong, M., and Stephens, T., (2005) Individual contingent pay, in Employee Reward Management and Practice. London, Kogan Page, pp.231-254 BBC News, Retrieved, 2nd January 2011 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3681973.stm, Cornwell website, Retrieved 7th January 2011 from http://www.cornwell.co.uk/people_management/reward_management.asp CIPD (2010) Performance Related Pay Factsheet, Retrieved 10th January 2011 from: http://www.cipd.co.uk/shapingthefuture/_eccrsplrst.htm?IsSrchRes=1 Eurofound website, Retrieved 6th January 2011 from: Edwards, P.,( 2003 ed.) Industrial Relations, Oxford Blackwell Hollinshead, G., Nicholls, P., and Tailby, S., (1999), Pay, in Employee Relations, London: Pitman Publishing, pp.332-377 Kersley, B., Alpin, C., Forth, J., Bryson, A., Bewley, H., Dix,G., And Oxenbridge, S., (2004) Inside the Workplace, First Findings from the 2004 Workplace Employment Relations Survey ( WERS 2004) Labour Research Department (September 2000) Performance -related pay failing in the public sector, Publications Online for Amicus members The Guardian (2010), Retrieved on 2nd January 2010 from: http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/feb/28/economics-conservatives-legacy-housing-election Wright, A., (2007), Through a Glass Darkly: problems and issues in reward, in Porter, C., Bingham, C., and Simmonds, D., (2008), Exploring Human Resource Management, McGraw Hill. London, pp.159-177 Appendix 1 The Decline of Collective Bargaining in the U.K. Membership % of Density % Covered by Collective Bargaining 1979 13 million 59 70 1997 7.8 30.2 33.3 2006 7.6 28.4 35.3 Constructed from data provided through the Workplace Industrial Relations (and Employee Relations) Survey series 1980-2004 and a certification Office report for 2007

Romanticism Essay -- Romantic Movement Essays

Romanticism, Romanticism, in a way, was a reaction against rigid Classicism, Rationalism, and Deism of the eighteenth century. Strongest in application between 1800 and 1850, the Romantic Movement differed from country to country and from romanticist to romanticist. Because it emphasized change it was an atmosphere in which events occurred and came to affect not only the way humans thought and expressed them, but also the way they lived socially and politically (Abrams, M.H. Pg. 13). â€Å"Romanticism emphasized the individual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal, the spontaneous, the emotional, the visionary, and the transcendental,† (Thompson, E.P. Pg. 108-109). Among the characteristic attitudes of Romanticism were the following: a deepened appreciation of the beauties of nature; a general exaltation of emotion over reason and of the senses over intellect; a turning in upon the self and heightened examination of human personality and its moods and mental poten tialities; a preoccupation with genius, the hero, and the exceptional figure in general, and a focus on his passions and inner struggles; a new view of the artist as a supremely individual creator, whose creative spirit is more important that strict adherence to formal rules and traditional procedures; an obsessive interest in folk culture, national and ethnic cultural origins, and the medieval era; and a fondness for the exotic, the remote, the mysterious, the weird, the monstrous, the diseased, and even the satanic.(Barzun, Jaques. Pg 157-159) Romanticism was preceded by several related developments from the mid-18th century that can be called Pre-Romanticism. Among such trends was a new appreciation of the medieval romance, from which the Romantic Movement derives its name. (Abrams,M.H. Pg. 261) The romance was a tale or ballad of chivalric adventure whose emphasis on individual heroism and on the exotic and mysterious was in clear contrast to the elegant formality and artificial ity of widespread Classical forms of literature, such as French Neoclassical tragedy. This new interest in relatively unsophisticated but emotional literary expressions of the past was to be a dominant note in Romanticism. (Frenz, Horst and Stallknecht, Newton P. pgs 70-73) Romanticism in English literature began in the 1790’s was the publication of Lyrical Ballads written by William Wordsworth an... ...nse de Lamartine, Alfred de Musset, Stendhal, Prosper Mà ©rimà ©e, Alexandre Dumas (Dumas Pà ¨re), and Thà ©ophile Gautier in France. Alessandro Manzoni and Giacomo Leopardi in Italy; Aleksandr Pushkin and Mikhail Lermontov in Russia; Josà © de Espronceda and à ngel de Saavedra in Spain; Adam Mickiewicz in Poland; and almost all of the important writers in pre-Civil War America.(Frenz, Horst and Stallknecht, Newton P.) Romanticism destroyed the clear simplicity and unity of thought which characterized the eighteenth century. There was no longer one philosophy, which expressed all the aims and ideals of Western Civilization. Romanticism provided a more complex, but truer, view of the real world. Bibliography Abrams, M.H. Natural Supernaturalism. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1971. Barzun, Jaques. Classic Romantic and Modern. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1943. Frenz, Horst & Stallknecht, Newton P. Comparative Literature. London: Feffer & Simons, Inc, 1971 Thompson, E.P. The Romantics: England in a Revolutionary Age. New York: The New Press, 1997. Walling, William, Kroeber, Karl. Images of Romanticism: Verbal and Visual. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978.

Free College Essays - Hidden Sin in Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter :: Scarlet Letter essays

The Scarlet Letter: Hidden Sin People often keep secrets in an effort to hide their sins from others. This is a risky since secrets have a way of manifesting themselves externally, and thus, letting everyone know of their owner’s sins. Hidden sin is a prominent theme in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s, The Scarlet Letter. Names like Chillingworth and Dimmesdale let the reader know how, in reality, these characters are, before ever really encountering them. Characters whom the reader will encounter in this novel are going through some type of dilemma on the inside, which begins to show itself in the exterior of the particular individual. In The Scarlet Letter, two studious individuals, Roger Chillingworth and Arthur Dimmesdale, two of the main characters in the novel, each possess their own sins which begin to show themselves in their outermost features, each brought apon themselves for their own respective reasons. Roger Chillingworth's features begin to display his inward deformities externally as the novel progresses due to his attempts at finding the man who violated his marriage. When he is first seen in the novel, "there was a remarkable intelligence in his features, as of a person who had so cultivated his mental part that it could not fail to mould the physical to itself and become manifest by unmistakable tokens." He also has a left shoulder which is slightly higher than the right originally, which only gets more ugly and misshapen with the rest of his body. Chillingworth then takes up residence with Dimmesdale and begins his quest to punish the minister and find out the true identity of this man. After he begins his quest the townspeople observe "something ugly and evil in his face which they had not previously noticed, and which grew still the more obvious to sight, the oftener they looked upon him.† Soon his wife, Hester, finds "the former aspect of an intellectual a nd studious man, calm and quiet, which was what she best remembered in him, had altogether vanished and been succeeded by an eager searching, almost fierce, yet carefully guarded look." Chillingworth, the injured husband, seeks no revenge against Hester, but he is determined to find the man who has violated his marrige: â€Å"He bears no letter of infamy wrought into his garment, and thou dost; but I shall read it on his heart.† Chillingworth comments: â€Å"Believe me, Hester, there are few things.

The Possible Mechanisms of Scrapie Contraction Essay -- Biology Medica

The Possible Mechanisms of Scrapie Contraction Scrapie was first discovered in Great Britain in the late 1900’s. The first case of scrapie in the United States was found in Michigan in 1947 when the flock owner had imported sheep of British origin several years prior. Since then scientists have researched to find the cause of the scrapie agent that are classified as transmissible spongiform encephalopathy. At the present, scientists have presented three main theories that explain why the scrapie agent holds a dangerous threat against its host and how it elicits its symptoms. Scientists are finding genetic alternatives to prevent and dampen the spread of scrapie within sheep and goat flocks. They use methods such as tatoing and genetic selection to regulate animals exposure to the pathogen. Scrapie is defined as a fatal, degenerative disease affecting the central nervous system of sheep and goats. It is widely feared because of its uncertain origin and therefore its seemingly incurable status. It is closely related and often associated with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE; also known as â€Å"Mad Cow† disease), as well Chronic Wasting Disease (found in deer and elk) all of which are classified as transmissible spongiform encephalopathy. (Q&A. July 2005 http://www.animalagriculture.org/scrapie/AboutScrapie/QandA.htm) Scrapie is usually transmitted from the mother to her baby sheep or goats, through the placenta or the placental fluids. Animals infected with scrapie experience the symptoms and effects of the disease after two to five years post infection. Scrapie can be transmitted to susceptible sheep and goats through contact with the placenta and placental fluids of infected animals. There has been no evidence of human trans... ...entists alike are trying to make up new procedures of prevention to dampen the further spread of scrapie throughout the population of sheep and goats. Such measures taken to prevent the spread of scrapie include the genetic-based flock clean up plan. Here, genetic selection is used as the primary means of scrapie regulation. The United State s Department of Agriculture’s Animal Plant Health Inspection Service is using genetic testing to determine which exposed animals must be removed or restricted in affected flocks and which are free to move unrestricted. This genetic clean up plan calls for the removal or restriction of all exposed susceptible sheep and goats as well as a five-year cycle of strict monitoring for the breeding of all the livestock (The Genetics of Scrapie Susceptibility. July 26 2005: http://www.aphis.usda/gov/us/nahps/scrapie/scrapie_genetics.pdf).

Chapter 2 Principles of Management

Fundamentals of Social Responsibility: Corporate Social Responsibility: The managerial obligation to take action that protects and improves both the welfare of society as a whole and the interests of the organization. Davis Model of Corporate Social Responsibility: Keith Davis: A generally accepted model of corporate social responsibility. List of 5 propositions that describe why and how business should adhere to obligation to take action that protects and improves the welfare of society as well as of the organization.Davis model: Proposition 1: Social responsibility arises from social power: Business has power over society and can influence minority and environmental pollution issues. Proposition 2: Business should operate a 2 way system: Inputs from society and open disclosure to the public. Proposition 3: Social costs and benefits shall be considered prior to proceeding: Profits are not the only factors involved.Proposition 4: Social costs shall be passed on to the consumer: Busin ess can bot be expected to foot the bill for social activities; the cost must be passed along to the consumer as well. Proposition 5: Business has a responsibility for some social problems outside their normal area of operation: Business should help solve social problems, if they can. Performance of Social Responsibility Activities by Business: Perform all legally required social responsibility activities. Consider voluntarily performing social responsibility activities beyond those legally required.Inform all relevant individuals of the extent to which the organization will become involved in performing social responsibility activities. Performing Required Social Responsibility Activities: Federal Legislation requires that business perform certain social responsibility activities. Environmental Protection Agency(EPA): Enforces socially responsible environmental standards. Equal pay act of 1963: Equal pay for equal work. Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972: Highway Safety Act o f 1978 Clean Air/ Act Amendment of 1990.Voluntarily Performing Social Responsibility Activities: Assessing the positive and negative outcomes of performing social responsibility activities over both the short and long term, and the performing only those activities that maximize management system success while making a desirable contribution to the welfare of society. Social Responsiveness: The degree of effectiveness and efficiency an organization displays in pursuing its social responsibilities. Determining Whether a Social Responsibility Exists: Determine which specific social obligation are implied by specific business situations.Ex: tobacco execs need to consider reducing harm to public while increasing revenues. Social Responsiveness and Decision Making: Socially responsible organizations are both effective and efficient in meeting its social responsibilities without wasting organizational resources in the process. Approaches to meeting Social Responsibilities: Two types of pro posed approaches: Lipson S. Prakash Sethi Lipson's Approach: Incorporate social goals into the annual planning process. Seeks comparative industry norms of social programs.Presents reports to all stakeholders on social responsibility progress. Experiments with different approaches for measuring social performance. Attempts to measure the cost of social programs as well as the return on social program investments. S Prakash Sethi's Approach: Social obligation approach: Business has economic purpose and social responsibility is covered by legislature. Social responsibility approach: Business has both economic and societal goals. Social responsiveness approach: Business has both economic and societal goals but anticipates future impact of business practices.Planning Social Responsibility Activities: Determining how the organization will achieve its social responsibility objectives. Converting Organizational Policies on Social Responsibility into Action: Phase 1: Recognition, by top man agement, that the organization has some social obligation. Phase 2: Technical staff give input to top management for implementation. Phase 3: Complete employee acceptance of strategy and responsibility for implementation. Controlling Social Responsibility Activities:Managers assess or measure what is occurring in the organization and, if necessary, change these occurrences in some way to make them conform to plans. Areas of Measurement: Economic function area: Measure of economic contribution the organization is making to society such as fair wages, worker, safety, etc.. Quality of life area: Whether the organization is upholding or improving the general quality of life such as producing high quality items, preserving the natural environment, etc.. Social investment area: Assisting community organizations to solve social problemes such as education, charities, etc..Problem solving area: Dealing with social problems such as long-rang community problems. Social Audit: The process of m easuring the present social responsibility activities of an organization to assess its performance in this area. How society can help business meet social obligations: Set rules that are clear and consistent: Keep the rules technically feasible. Make sure the rules are economically feasible. Make the rules prospective, not retro-active. Make the rules goal setting, not procedure prescribing. Definition of Ethics:The capacity to reflect on values in the corporate decision-making process, to determining how these values and decisions affect various stake holder groups, and to establish how mangers can use these observations in day to day company management.. Why Ethics is a vital part of management practices: Productivity: If employees are treated ethically they will be loyal and productive. Stakeholder Relations: A positive public image is good for business. Government Regulation: If organization behave ethically, there is less pressure on regulation and corporate over-sight.Code of ethics: A formal statement that acts as a guide for the ethics of how people within a particular organization should act and make decisions. Creating an ethical workplace: The golden rule: Do unto others†¦ The Utilitarian principles: Greatest good for greatest number. Kant's categorical imperative: Universal rule of behavior; fairness. The professional ethics: Assume you are being judged by peers. The T. V. Test: Would you be comfortable saying it in front of national T. V.? The legal test: Is it legal? The four way test: Is it rightful?Is it fair? Will it build good will? Will it be beneficial. Sarbanes-Oxley Reform Standards Passed in 2002 to prevent future deception in publically owned companies. Focuses on promoting ethical conduct. Areas covered include maintaining GAAP, evaluating executive compensation, monitoring fundamental business strategies, understanding and mitigating major risk, and ensuring company structure and process that enhance integrity and reputation. Sup ports whistle-blowing to discourage deceptive management practices. Consequences: Significant fines and jail time.